The Republic of Texas was a sovereign Sovereignty is the right to exercise, within a specific territory of a kingdom or a nation-state, the highest authority by the law. It is an important part of the three main political perspectives of realism, rationalism, and internationalism, as these three theories differ most in their views on sovereignty. Sovereignty has existed throughout nation Though "nation" is also commonly used in informal discourse as a synonym for state or country, a nation is not identical to a state. Countries where the social concept of "nation" coincides with the political concept of "state" are called nation states in North America North America is the northern continent of the Americas, situated in the Earth's northern hemisphere and almost totally in the western hemisphere. It is bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the southeast by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean; South America lies to the between the United States The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the and Mexico The United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos ), commonly known as Mexico (English: /ˈmɛksɪkoʊ/) (Spanish: México (help·info) [ˈmexiko]), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, that existed from 1836 to 1846.

Formed as a break-away republic from Mexico by the Texas Revolution The Texas Revolution or Texas War of Independence was fought from October 2, 1835 to April 21, 1836 between Mexico and settlers in the Texas portion of the Mexican state Coahuila y Tejas. Animosity between the Mexican government and the American settlers in Texas , as well as many Tejas residents of Mexican ancestry, began with the Siete Leyes of 1, the nation claimed borders that encompassed an area that included all of the present U.S. state A U.S. state is any one of 50 subnational entities of the United States of America that share sovereignty with the federal government . Because of this shared sovereignty, an American is a citizen both of the federal entity and of his or her state of domicile. However, state citizenship is very flexible, and no government approval is required to of Texas Texas ( /ˈtɛksəs/ ) is a state in the South Central United States, nicknamed the Lone Star State. It is bordered by Mexico to the south, New Mexico to the west, Oklahoma to the north, Arkansas to the northeast, and Louisiana to the east. Texas is the second largest U.S. state in both area and population, with an area of 268,820 square miles (696, as well as parts of present-day New Mexico New Mexico ( /nuːˈmɛksɨkoʊ/ or Spanish: Nuevo México) is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. Inhabited by Native American populations for many centuries, it has also been part of the Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain, part of Mexico, and a U.S. territory. Among U.S. states, New Mexico has the highest, Oklahoma Oklahoma ( /ˌoʊkləˈhoʊmə/ ) is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. With an estimated 3,617,316 residents in 2007 and a land area of 68,667 square miles (177,847 km²), Oklahoma is the 28th most populous and 20th-largest state. The state's name is derived from the Choctaw words okla and humma, meaning &, Kansas The State of Kansas ( /ˈkænzəs/ ) is a Midwestern state in the central region of the United States of America, an area often referred to as the American "Heartland" or "America's Breadbasket" referring to the state's enormous wheat-growing agribusiness. It is named after the Kansas River which flows through it, which in turn, Colorado The State of Colorado ( /kɒləˈrædoʊ/ or /kɒləˈrɑːdoʊ/ (help·info)) is a state located in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States of America. It may also be considered to be part of the Western and Southwestern regions of the United States. Colorado entered statehood in 1876 and was nicknamed the “Centennial State”. It is, and Wyoming The State of Wyoming ( /waɪˈoʊmɪŋ/ ) is a state in the Western United States. The majority of the state is dominated by the mountain ranges and rangelands of the Rocky Mountain West, while the easternmost section of the state includes part of a high altitude prairie region known as the High Plains. While the tenth largest U.S. state by size, based upon the Treaties of Velasco The Treaties of Velasco were two documents signed at Velasco, Texas, on May 14, 1836 between Antonio López de Santa Anna of Mexico and the Republic of Texas, in the aftermath of the Battle of San Jacinto (April 21, 1836). The signatories were Interim President David G. Burnet for Texas and General Santa Anna for Mexico. The Treaties were intended, between the newly created Texas Republic and Mexico. The eastern boundary with the United States was defined by the Adams-Onís Treaty The Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819, also known as the Transcontinental Treaty of 1819, settled a border dispute in North America between the United States and Spain. The treaty was the result of increasing tensions between the U.S. and Spain regarding territorial rights at a time of weakened Spanish power in the New World. In addition to ceding between the United States and Spain Spain /ˈspeɪn/ (Spanish: España, pronounced [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), or the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a country located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.[note 6] Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with Gibraltar; to the north by France,, in 1819. Its southern and western-most boundary with Mexico The United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos ), commonly known as Mexico (English: /ˈmɛksɪkoʊ/) (Spanish: México (help·info) [ˈmexiko]), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, was under dispute throughout the existence of the Republic, with Texas claiming that the boundary was the Rio Grande The Rio Grande is a river that forms part of the border between the United States and Mexico. At 1,885 miles (3,034 km) long, it is the fourth-longest river system in the United States. It serves as a natural boundary along the border between the American state of Texas and the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas, and Mexico claiming the Nueces River The Nueces rises northwest of San Antonio in the Edwards Plateau, in Real County approximately 50 mi north of Uvalde. It flows south through the Texas Hill Country, past Barksdale and Crystal City, approaching to within 35 mi (56 km) of the Rio Grande on the border with Mexico. East of Carrizo Springs it turns to the east, flowing through the as the boundary. This dispute would later become a trigger for the Mexican-American War The Mexican–American War was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of Texas. Mexico claimed ownership of Texas as a breakaway province and refused to recognize the secession and subsequent military victory by Texas in 1836, after the annexation of Texas The Texas Annexation of 1845 was the voluntary annexation of the Republic of Texas to the United States of America. Texas became the twenty-eighth state and included all of present-day Texas and parts of present-day Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Wyoming.

Contents

History

Establishment

Main articles: Mexican Texas Mexican Texas is the given name by Texas history scholars to the period between 1821 and 1836, when Texas was governed by Mexico. The period began with Mexico's victory over Spain in its war of independence in 1821. For the first several years of its existence, Mexican Texas operated very similarly to Spanish Texas. The 1824 Constitution of Mexico and Texas Revolution The Texas Revolution or Texas War of Independence was fought from October 2, 1835 to April 21, 1836 between Mexico and settlers in the Texas portion of the Mexican state Coahuila y Tejas. Animosity between the Mexican government and the American settlers in Texas , as well as many Tejas residents of Mexican ancestry, began with the Siete Leyes of 1

The Republic of Texas was created from part of the Mexican state Coahuila y Tejas Coahuila y Tejas was one of the constituent states of the newly established United Mexican States under its 1824 Constitution as a result of the Texas Revolution The Texas Revolution or Texas War of Independence was fought from October 2, 1835 to April 21, 1836 between Mexico and settlers in the Texas portion of the Mexican state Coahuila y Tejas. Animosity between the Mexican government and the American settlers in Texas , as well as many Tejas residents of Mexican ancestry, began with the Siete Leyes of 1. Mexico was in turmoil as leaders attempted to determine an optimal form of government. In early 1835, as the Mexican government transitioned from a federalist Federalism is a political philosophy in which a group of members are bound together with a governing representative head. The term federalism is also used to describe a system of the government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (like states or provinces) model to centralism A centralized, or centralised , government is the form of government in which power is concentrated in a central authority to which local governments are subject. Centralization occurs both geographically and politically, wary colonists in Texas began forming Committees of Correspondence and Safety. A central committee in San Felipe de Austin San Felipe, also known as San Felipe de Austin, is a town in Austin County, Texas, United States. The population was 868 at the 2000 census coordinated their activities.[1] In the Mexican interior, several states revolted against the new centralist policies.[2] The Texas Revolution officially began on October 2, 1835 in the Battle of Gonzales The Battle of Gonzales was the first military engagement of the Texas Revolution. It was fought near the Mexican Texas town of Gonzales on October 2, 1835 between rebellious Texian settlers and a detachment of Mexican army troops. Four years previously, Mexican authorities had given the settlers of Gonzales a small cannon to help protect them from. Although the Texians Texians is the name for immigrants from the United States and countries other than Mexico who became residents in the Tejas and Coahuila areas of Mexico, much of which later would be called Texas. Following a war for independence, Texian became the official designation for all citizens of the sovereign Republic of Texas , although several originally fought for the reinstatement of the Constitution of 1824 The 1824 Constitution of Mexico was the first full constitution adopted by the Mexican Republic. Enacted on October 4, 1824, following the overthrow of the short-lived Mexican Empire of Iturbide, the constitution stated that the new republic was to be styled the "United Mexican States" and was to be a representative federal republic of, by 1836 the aim of the war had changed. The Convention of 1836 The Convention of 1836 was a meeting of elected delegates in Washington-on-the-Brazos, Texas in March 1836. The Texas Revolution had begun five months previously, and the interim government, known as the Consultation had wavered over whether to declare independence from Mexico or pledge to uphold the repudiated Mexican Constitution of 1824. Unlike declared independence on March 2, 1836 and officially formed the Republic of Texas.

1836-1845

The first Congress of the Republic of Texas convened in October 1836 at Columbia West Columbia is a city in Brazoria County in the U.S. state of Texas within the greater Houston metropolitan area. The population was 4,255 at the 2000 census (now West Columbia West Columbia is a city in Brazoria County in the U.S. state of Texas within the greater Houston metropolitan area. The population was 4,255 at the 2000 census). Stephen F. Austin Stephen Fuller Austin , known as the Father of Texas, led the second and ultimately successful colonization of the region by settlers from the United States. The capital of Texas, Austin in Travis County, Austin County, Stephen F. Austin State University in Nacogdoches, Austin College in Sherman, as well as a number of K-12 schools are named in, known as the Father of Texas The following is a list of significant men and women known, following the now largely-discredited great man theory, for being the father, mother, or considered the founders in a field, listed by category. In some fields the title of being the "father" is debatable, died December 27, 1836, after serving two months as Secretary of State In many countries, a Secretary of State is a mid-level post. It is usually a political post, although in some countries, such as Germany, it can be filled by a member of the executive bureaucracy as a political appointment. In the United Kingdom a Secretary of State is a senior member of the Government, a politician appointed by the Prime Minister for the new Republic. In 1836, five sites served as temporary capitals of Texas (Washington-on-the-Brazos Washington-on-the-Brazos is an unincorporated area along the Brazos River in Washington County, Texas, United States. It was founded when Texas was still a part of Mexico, and the settlement became the site of the Convention of 1836 and the signing of the Texas Declaration of Independence. The name "Washington-on-the-Brazos" was used to, Harrisburg Harrisburg is located within the city of Houston, Texas, United States, Galveston Galveston is a city in and seat of Galveston County located on Galveston Island on the Gulf Coast in the U.S. state of Texas within the Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown metropolitan area. As of the 2005 U.S. Census estimate, the city had a total population of 57,466. Galveston is accessible by the Galveston Causeway linking Galveston Island to the, Velasco and Columbia West Columbia is a city in Brazoria County in the U.S. state of Texas within the greater Houston metropolitan area. The population was 4,255 at the 2000 census) before president Sam Houston moved the capital to Houston Houston is the fourth-largest city in the United States and the largest city within the state of Texas. As of the 2007 U.S. Census estimate, the city has a population of 2.2 million within an area of 600 square miles (1,600 km²). Houston is the seat of Harris County and the economic center of the Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown metropolitan area— in 1837. In 1839, the capital was moved to the new town of Austin Austin is the capital of the U.S. state of Texas and the county seat of Travis County. Located in Central Texas and the American South, it is the fourth-largest city in Texas and the 15th-largest in the United States. It was the third-fastest-growing large city in the nation from 2000 to 2006. According to the 2009 U.S. Census estimate, Austin had by the next president Mirabeau B. Lamar Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar was an American politician, diplomat and soldier who was a leading Texas political figure during the Texas Republic era. He was the second president of the Republic of Texas, after David G. Burnet (1836 as ad-interim president) and Sam Houston.

Internal politics of the Republic were based on the conflict between two factions. The nationalist faction, led by Mirabeau B. Lamar Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar was an American politician, diplomat and soldier who was a leading Texas political figure during the Texas Republic era. He was the second president of the Republic of Texas, after David G. Burnet (1836 as ad-interim president) and Sam Houston, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Native Americans Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States, including parts of Alaska and the island state of Hawaii. They comprise a large number of distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as intact political communities. There has, and the expansion of Texas to the Pacific Ocean The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. Its name is derived from the Latin name Mare Pacificum, "peaceful sea", bestowed upon it by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan. It extends from the Arctic in the north to Antarctica in the south, bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, and the Americas in the. Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans.

The Comanches The Comanche are a Native American ethnic group whose range consisted of present-day eastern New Mexico, southern Colorado, southern Kansas, all of Oklahoma, and most of northwest Texas. Originally, the Comanches were hunter-gatherers, with a typical Plains Indian culture. There may have been as many as 45,000 Comanches in the late 18th century were the main Native American opposition to the Texas Republic. In the late 1830s Sam Houston negotiated a peace between Texas and the Comanches. In 1838 Lamar replaced Houston as president and reversed the Indian policies. He launched a genocidal war against the Comanches and invaded Comancheria The Comancheria is the name commonly given to the historical homeland of the Comanche. The area was vaguely defined but generally was described as being north and west of a line that stretched from San Antonio, Texas in the south to the Arkansas River in present-day Oklahoma and Kansas in the north itself. In retaliation the Comanche attacked Texas in a series of raids. After peace talks in 1840 ended with the massacre of 34 Comanche leaders in San Antonio the Comanches launched a major attack deep into Texas, known as the Great Raid of 1840. Under command of Potsanaquahip (Buffalo Hump), 500-700 Comanche cavalry warriors swept down the Guadalupe River The Guadalupe River runs from Kerr County, Texas to San Antonio Bay on the Gulf of Mexico. The river is a popular destination for rafters and canoers. Larger cities along the river include New Braunfels, Kerrville, Seguin, Gonzales, Cuero, and Victoria. The Guadalupe has several dams along its length, the most notable of which forms Canyon Lake valley, killing and plundering all the way to the shore of the Gulf of Mexico, where they sacked the towns of Victoria and Linnville. Houston became president again in 1841 and, with both Texans and Comanches exhausted by war, a new peace was established.[3]

Although Texas governed itself, Mexico refused to recognize its independence.[4] On March 5, 1842, a Mexican force of over 500 men, led by Rafael Vásquez, invaded Texas for the first time since the revolution. They soon headed back to the Rio Grande after briefly occupying San Antonio. 1,400 Mexican troops, led by the French mercenary general Adrian Woll launched a second attack and captured San Antonio on September 11, 1842. A Texas militia retaliated at the Battle of Salado Creek. However on September 18th, this militia was defeated by Mexican soldiers and Texas Cherokee Indians during the Dawson Massacre.[5] The Mexican army would later retreat from the city of San Antonio.

Among the effects of Mexico's attacks on Texas was the intensification of conflicts between political factions, including an incident known as the Texas Archive War. To "protect" the Texas national archives, President Sam Houston ordered them removed from Austin. The archives were eventually returned back to Austin, albeit at gunpoint. The Texas Congress admonished Houston for the incident, and this episode in Texas history would solidify Austin as Texas's seat of government for the Republic and the future state.[6]

Statehood

A map of Mexico, 1835-1846. Main article: Texas Annexation

On February 28, 1845, the U.S. Congress passed a bill that would authorize the United States to annex the Republic of Texas. On March 1, U.S. President John Tyler signed the bill. The legislation set the date for annexation for December 29 of the same year. Faced with imminent American annexation of Texas, Charles Elliot and Alphonse de Saligny, the British and French ministers to Texas, were dispatched to Mexico City by their governments. Meeting together with Mexico's foreign secretary, they signed a "Diplomatic Act" in which Mexico offered to recognize an independent Texas, with boundaries that would be determined with French and British mediation. Texas President Anson Jones forwarded both offers to a specially elected convention meeting at Austin, and the American proposal was accepted with only one dissenting vote. The Mexican proposal was never put to a vote. Following the previous decree of President Jones, the proposal was then put to a national vote.

On October 13, 1845 a large majority of voters in the Republic approved both the American offer and the proposed constitution that specifically endorsed slavery and the slave trade. This constitution was later accepted by the U.S. Congress, making Texas a U.S. state on the same day annexation took effect, December 29, 1845 (therefore bypassing a territorial phase).[7] One of the motivations for annexation was that the Texas government had incurred huge debts which the United States agreed to assume upon annexation. In 1850, in return for this assumption of debt (10,000,000$), a large portion of Texas-claimed territory, now parts of Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Wyoming, was ceded to the Federal government.

The annexation resolution has been the topic of some historical myths—one that remains is that the resolution granted Texas the explicit right to secede from the Union. This is a right argued by some to be implicitly held by all states. The resolution did include two unique provisions: first, it said that up to four additional states could be created from Texas' territory, with the consent of the State of Texas. The resolution did not include any special exceptions to the provisions of the US Constitution regarding statehood. The right to create these possible new states was not "reserved" for Texas, as is sometimes stated.[8] Second, Texas did not have to surrender its public lands to the federal government. While Texas did cede all territory outside of its current area to the federal government in 1850, it did not cede any public lands within its current boundaries. This means that the only lands owned by the federal government within Texas have subsequently been purchased by the federal government. This also means that the state government has control over oil reserves which were later used to fund the state's public university system through the Permanent University Fund.[9] In addition, the state's control over offshore oil reserves in Texas runs out to 3 leagues (10.357 miles, 16.668 km) rather than three miles (4.828 km) as with other states.[10]

Government

After gaining their independence, the Texas voters had elected a Congress of 14 senators and 29 representatives in September 1836. The Constitution of the Republic of Texas allowed the first president to serve for only two years. It set a three year term for all later presidents.

The first Congress of the Republic of Texas convened in October 1836 at Columbia (now West Columbia). Stephen F. Austin, sometimes called the "Father of Texas," died December 27, 1836, after serving two months as Secretary of State for the new Republic. Due mainly to the ongoing war for independence, five sites served as temporary capitals of Texas in 1836: (Washington-on-the-Brazos, Harrisburg, Galveston, Velasco and Columbia). The capital was moved to the new city of Houston in 1837. In 1839, the capital was moved to a tiny frontier settlement on the Colorado River named Waterloo. A new city was laid out, and Waterloo was renamed Austin.

The court system inaugurated by Congress included a Supreme Court consisting of a chief justice appointed by the president and four associate justices, elected by a joint ballot of both houses of Congress for four-year terms and eligible for reelection. The associates also presided over four judicial districts. Houston nominated James Collinsworth to be the first chief justice. The county-court system consisted of a chief justice and two associates, chosen by a majority of the justices of the peace in the county. Each county was also to have a sheriff, a coroner, justices of the peace, and constables to serve two-year terms. Congress formed 23 counties, whose boundaries generally coincided with the existing municipalities.

The original (or "Burnet") flag of Texas (1836–1839)

Internal politics of the Republic were based on the conflict between two factions. The nationalist faction, led by Mirabeau B. Lamar, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the Cherokee and other Native American tribes, and the expansion of Texas to the Pacific Ocean. Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans. The first flag of the republic was the "Burnet Flag" (a gold star on an azure field), followed shortly thereafter by official adoption of the Lone Star Flag.

In 1839 Texas became the first nation in the world to enact a homestead exemption, under which a person's primary residence could not be seized by creditors.

Diplomatic relations

On March 3, 1837, US President Andrew Jackson appointed Alcée La Branche as American chargé d'affaires to the Republic of Texas, thus officially recognizing Texas as an independent republic. France granted official recognition of Texas on September 25, 1839, appointing Alponse Dubois de Saligny to serve as chargé d'affaires. The French Legation was built in 1841 and still stands in Austin as the oldest frame structure in the city.[11]

The Republic also received diplomatic recognition from Belgium, the Netherlands, and the Republic of Yucatán. The United Kingdom never granted official recognition of Texas due to its own friendly relations with Mexico, but admitted Texan goods into British ports on their own terms. In London, the original Embassy of the Republic of Texas still stands. Immediately opposite the gates to St. James's Palace, Sam Houston's original Embassy of the Republic of Texas to the Court of St. James's is now a hat shop, but is clearly marked with a large plaque and a nearby restaurant is called Texas Embassy.[12]

Presidents and vice presidents

Main article: List of Presidents of the Republic of Texas
Presidents and Vice Presidents of the Republic of Texas with election results
From To President Vice president Presidential candidates Pres. votes Vice pres. candidates V.P. votes
March 16, 1836 October 22, 1836 David G. Burnet (interim) Lorenzo de Zavala interim
October 22, 1836 December 10, 1838 Sam Houston Mirabeau B. Lamar Sam Houston Henry Smith Stephen F. Austin 5119 743 587 Mirabeau B. Lamar
December 10, 1838 December 13, 1841 Mirabeau B. Lamar David G. Burnet Mirabeau B. Lamar Robert Wilson 6995 252 David G. Burnet
December 13, 1841 December 9, 1844 Sam Houston Edward Burleson Sam Houston David G. Burnet 7915 3619 Edward Burleson Memucan Hunt 6141 4336
December 9, 1844 February 19, 1846 Anson Jones Kenneth L. Anderson Anson Jones Edward Burleson __ __ Kenneth L. Anderson

See also

Texas portal
History of Texas

French Texas Spanish Texas Mexican Texas Republic of Texas Texas in the Civil War State of Texas

Notes

  1. ^ Huson 1974, p. 4.
  2. ^ Lack 1992, p. 7.
  3. ^ Hämäläinen 2008, pp. 215-217.
  4. ^ Vazquez 1997, p. 76.[citation needed]
  5. ^ "Dawson Massacre". Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved Sep.24, 2006.
  6. ^ "The Archives War". Texas Treasures- The Republic. The Texas State Library and Archives Commission. 2005-11-02. http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/treasures/republic/archwar/archwar.html. Retrieved on 2009-01-03.
  7. ^ The Avalon Project at Yale Law School: Texas - From Independence to Annexation
  8. ^ Joint Resolution for Annexing Texas to the United States
  9. ^ Texas Annexation : Questions and Answers, Texas State Library & Archives Commission.
  10. ^ Overview of U.S. Legislation and Regulations Affecting Offshore Natural Gas and Oil Activity
  11. ^ Museum Info, French Legation Museum.
  12. ^ Diplomatic Relations of the Republic of Texas

References

Further reading

Categories: Former countries in North America | Former republics | Short-lived states | States and territories established in 1836 | 1846 disestablishments | Former political entities in North America | Republic of Texas | 1845 disestablishments | Texas Revolution

 

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